Both, Either, and Neither

Both
1. Both
We use both when we are talking bout two things (usually a noun) or the two (the one and the other).
Examples:
• Hendry teaches Math. I teach Math. ---> Both Hendry and I teach Math.
• Regal bookstore is expensive. Fill bookstore is expensive. ---> Both bookstores are expensive.
2. Both of
Both of refers to two persons or things. It always needs the/these/those/my/your/his, etc.
Examples:
• Which of the two pants do you want? ---> I want both of them.
• Both of the bookstores are expensive. (not both of bookstores)
3. Both . . . and . . .
We can join simple statements together into compound sentences.
Examples:
• Mr. Andra teaches Science. He also teaches French. ---> Mr. Andra teaches both Science and French.
• The students were tired. They were also thirsty. --- > The students were both tired and thirsty.


Either
4. Either
We use either when we are talking about one or the other of two.
Examples:
• We can go to Jakarta market. We can go to Bekasi market. ---> We can go to either markets. I don't mind.
• Park on either side of the road.
5. Either of
Either of means one of the two. It always needs the/these/those/my/your/his, etc.
Examples:
• Which of the two do you want? ---> Either of them will go.
• We can go to either of those bookstores.
6. Either . . . or . . .
Example:
• You must take it. I must take it. ---> Either you or I must take it.


Neither
7. Neither
We use neither when we are talking about not one nor the other of two.
Examples:
• Regal bookstore is not expensive. Fill bookstore is not expensive. ---> Neither bookstores are expensive.
8. Neither of
Neither of means not one of the two. It always needs the/these/those/my/your/his, etc.
Examples:
• Which of the two shorts do you want? ---> I want neither of them. (I don't want those shorts.)
• Neither of the bookstores we went to was expensive.
9. Neither . . . nor . . .
Examples:
• Bryan cannot read. He cannot write. ---> He can neither read nor write.
• He does not speak French. She does not speak English. ---> He speaks neither French nor English.
• Sam didn't come to the party. Katty didn't come to the party. ---> Neither Sam nor Katty came to the party.


Notes:
Elliptical sentence (negative)
John doesn't like milk and Chris doesn't like milk.
---> John doesn't like milk and Chris doesn't either.
---> John doesn't like milk and neither does Chris.

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Clauses

A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause is divided into:


1. Independent Clause
A clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence.
Examples:
Karina has always been a good student.
Mahar is a handsome man.


2. Dependent Cause
A clause that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning. This type of clause can be classified as:
1. Adjective clause
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun. It is introduced by relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, which, or  that) or by subordinating conjunctions (where, when, why).
Examples:
The woman who speaks to them is their teacher.
The book which you borrowed yesterday is new.
The house of which the door is red will be renovated.
2. Adverb clause
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb. It is introduced by subordinating conjunctions, such as, when, where, before, since, as, so, because, though, although, unless, and etc.
Examples:
He spoke before he thought.
It was hot hen we went out.
3. Noun clause
A noun clause is a dependent clause that is used as noun. It is introduced by words, such as who, which, that, where, when, how, and why.
Examples:
What he does is his business. (subject)
Tell whomever you wish that story. (indirect object)
I know where she lives. (object)
Notes:
Noun clauses are also called embedded clause.
Embedded clause
Embedded statement is used in place of noun phrase.
Examples:
I know the woman who is singing the song. --> I know the woman singing the song.
The ma who standing beside me is my teacher.
The wallet that was stolen yesterday has been found. --> The wallet stolen yesterday has been found.
Some guests invited to the party cannot come.
-ing is used to modify what somebody or something do. It has an active meaning. -ed is used to modify somebody or something with a passive meaning.

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Piagetian View of Cognitive and Language Development

Piaget (1959) argued that cognitive development and language acquisition are closely interrelated processes. Toddlers develop an abstract knowledge about the world through experience with objects around them and by observing the way one object is acted upon by another. This stage of development is closely linked to the sensorimotor period, from birth to around 18 months. In Piaget's view, cognitive knowledge about the world is seen as a pecursor to language. Without cognitive development there can be little or no language acquisition. In other words, language is the manifestation of a child's developing cognition. Language is the means by which a child represents reality.

Figure 1. Cognitive and Language Development of Piaget's View

     This view is often referred to as cognitive determinism; the development of language forms is governed by cognitive growth, that is, cognitive development before language (see figure 1). In fact, in this view, the order of development within language learning is governed by the stages of cognitive growth. This concept has been challenged by many as being narrow or not completely accurate. Some research has shown that the relationship is not one way. For example, in some situations children have used language to express concepts such as object permanence and cause-effect at about the same time the concepts were being learned, rather than after as cognitive determinism would predict.

    In Piaget's view, language initially has an internal function. Children first use language privately for 'talking' about the environment and their experiences and only later for social interaction. Children may repeat something they hear for their own benefit, as a way of internalizing the input. For example, a child is told, 'You mustn't play with Mummy's lipstick'. The child later repeats that utterance to him/herself when alone, a phenomenon that is often observed before children fall asleep. Children also often talk to themselves when playing on their own. They 'talk' to themselves from the early stages of babbling, before they even have words. A child might play with toys in his/her room, babbling all the while 'hab dab dab dab dab. Dab dab dab. Hab dab' and sound exactly as if there is a conversation taking place even though there is no other interactant (other person in the interaction).

Source: Goh, Christine C. M. and Rita Elaine Silver.2004. Language Acquisition and Development: A Teacher's Guide. Singapore: Pearson Education South Asia.

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How to solve a problem using an explanation

Writing a solution to a problem may be an example of an explanation. Look at the problem and its solution below:


Problem                        

Dear Brains, My little sister is always annoying me. Whenever I want to watch TV she comes in and changes the channel. If I want to sit and read a book she says that I have to take her to the park to play. When I have friends over she embarrasses me by hanging around. My mum always takes her side and tells me to give in to her. What can I do? Signed, Upset



Solution

Dear Upset, Little sisters and brothers can be annoying. Here is some advice that may help you.      Firstly, talk to your mother about your feelings so that she understands how upset you are. Do this at a time when you are not angry with your little sister because you will make more sense when you speak.      Next, ask your little sister nicely to share the TV with you. She may cooperate as a result of your polite behaviour. On the other hand, she may not be fair and if so, there would be no point arguing with her. Instead walk away.      Finally, instead of your friends coming to your house, go to their place.      I hope this advice improves your life with your little sister. Regards, Brains



Notice the structure of the solution:
1. After the greeting (Dear Upset) comes an introduction that has a short description (little sisters and brothers can be annoying).
2. After this is a series of paragraphs that explain the solution.
3. There is a new paragraph for each new part of the explanation.
4. Each of these paragraphs begins with a word that shows order (firstly, next and finally).
5. Reasons are included and words that show cause and effect are used (because and as a result).
6. The last paragraph signals the conclusion of the text, and then there is the sign-off (Regards, Brains).


When constructing an answer to a problem, think about these things:
1. What is the problem?
2. Why is there a problem?
3. What is the effect of the problem?
4. How could the problem be solved?
5. Why would this be a good solution?


Source: Anderson, Mark and Kathy Anderson. 1997. Text Types in English 1. South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.

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